THE NEW CHILDREN OF THE SUN.

The Inca education during the time of their empire was divided into two principal spheres: education for the governing class and education for the general population.
Inca sages known as Amautas and haravicus were very well trained men who kept a record of historical events and preserved the literary works and traditions of their people. Some scholars have made a distinction between the two terms, defining "haravicus" as wise men who recorded in their memory  and recited ceremonial poems and ritual songs, and "amautas" as wise men who recorded all kinds of cosmological, technological, and religious information.
The Amautas and haravicus were considered special and the most respected class. They were highly knowledgeable and included illustrious philosophers, poets, astrologers and priests who kept the histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, and sacred traditions throughout the kingdom. The teachers did ensure that the general population learned the official and sacred language of the Empire and its laws.
The Amautas and haravicus were in charge of the "Yachay'Huasi," the Inca House of Knowledge. They were responsible for the education of Inca princes and the children of the the high nobility (the royal blood), as well as other young members of conquered cultures specially chosen to administer the regions.
The education of young novices about Inca religion, rites, sacred ceremonies, history and government, and moral laws, began at the age of 13 in the House of Knowledge (Yachay'Huasi) in Cuzco. They also ensured a thorough understanding of the Quipu, the Incas' unique logical-numerical system which used knotted strings of different colors to keep accurate records of different cosmological matters. In addition, the young men were given careful training in physical education and military techniques of power assimilation to be applied in new expansions of their territory.
Most Inca novices finished their education at the age of 19. After passing their rigorous examination, the young men would receive their "wara"(a special type of underwear) as proof of their maturity and virility. Their sacred education ended with a special ceremony, attended by the Empire's oldest and most illustrious Incas and teachers, at which the new young nobles, as future rulers, demonstrated their physical and spiritual prowess and warrior skills that proved their masculinity force. The candidates were also presented to the Inca sovereign, who pierced their ears with large pendants and congratulated the young aspirants on the proficiency they had shown, reminding them of the responsibilities attached to their station and calling them the new "Children of the Sun."
Although the Amautas' activities are registered by all chroniclers, their specific and sacred functions have not been clearly established. Amautas were also usually considered Quipu'Camayocs, individuals who had the capacity to record accurate information and the transmission of it upon request.
Today, the term "Amauta" could be translated "maestro," signifying a teacher, with emphasis on the person's wisdom and achievement.

THE POWER OF THE INCA LAW.

The Inca Empire was the largest South Americas had ever known and one of the largest empires in the world prior the arrival of the Europeans settlers. Their complex and multicultural society stretched across the Andes' mountain tops and down to the shoreline, incorporating lands from today's Colombia, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina and Peru -all connected by a very vast highway system whose complexity rivaled any in the Old World. Rich in food, textiles, gold, herbs, and more, the Incas were masters of city building, land planners, sophisticated mountain agriculture, with no marketplaces at all, no class of traders and no commerce of any kind within its boundaries. Their empire was divided into four quarters or "suyos," whose corners met at the sacred capital, Cuzco, in modern-day Peru.
In the Tahuantinsuyo (The Four United Regions) there was a moral code that regulated the human coexistence and allowed, in the cities as in the ayllus, harmonious relations between each other. These were based on mutual aid and cooperation. The development of individual wealth was not possible under these common philosophy and that is the reason why commerce never got the chance to be born.
The Incas never promulgated Laws to frighten their vassals, nor to deride them, because they were not barbarians or cruel to each other. Rather they were a well organized state that used most of the time peaceful assimilations as a method of conquest and governed their coexistence by a spirit of cooperation and collective work.
The ones who did not want to accept the practice of authentic human values, harsh and severe set of 3 Laws, were applied on them: "Ama Sua, Ama Llulla, Ama Quella" meaning "Do not steal. Do not lie. Do not be lazy."
Ama Sua, Do not steal, this law promoted "respect"showing regard and appreciation for the worth of someone or something including respect for self, respect for the rights and dignity of all persons  as parts of the whole universal creation and respect for the environment that sustain life.
Ama Llulla, Do not lie, this law promoted integrity emphasized by the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles.
Ama Quella, Do not be lazy, this law promoted fairness giving all people an equal treatment. They were all bound by the rules that take turns and share. Be committed to your work was another teaching associated with this law.
Along with these 3 Laws, there were other ordinances of great importance, such as:
-Be honest, -Be clean, -Be vivacious, -Be worthy, -Respect life, -Be gentle, -Be sensitive.
The Laws promoted peace among its people. Crime was an unusual thing, but when a crime was committed the punishment was ruthless. The purpose of the Laws was to teach a lesson to the offender and prevent re-occurrence by any member of the society. The transgression was considered an action against the power of their divinities.
There was no system of imprisonment and offenders were punished severely so that the penalty was exemplary to the rest of the population. Those who were able to survive the punishment were forced to tell their stories for the rest of their lives, those interested in listening would give them food so basically their survival was based on how engaging and compelling their stories were.
Penalties were categorized in two groups -personal or -collective, according to the crime, from simple mass repression to the isolation of entire villages. Mutilation and the death penalty were frequently applied. Rebellions, homicide, adultery, 2nd offenses in drunkenness, theft and laziness, breaking state possessions, were all punished to death by stoning, hanging or pushing the person off a cliff. Mutilation were common for theft. Punishment such as public scolding was administered for minor crimes and 1st time offenders.
When a new territory was annexed to the Inca Empire the local laws and rules to their deities continued to be applied unless they were in conflict with the 3 Laws imposed by the Inca. If the leader of the newly annexed territory opposed to follow the 3 mandatory Laws, he would be executed and a new loyal leader would oversee and secure loyalty among the population. This new leader was usually transferred from another territory along with his family and entourage.
Regional leaders were authorized to decide in several different matters of Law but not all. Only a higher and ceremonial authority could decide in cases in which the mutilation or death penalty was enforced.
The great wealth of the Inca Empire was based on a high code of behavior and mutual cooperation to sustain life in an environment challenged by so many difficulties. They as one body developed so many methods to prevent starvation and that was the common goal rather than to foster trade and individual wealth.

THE SACRED RIVER OF THE ANDES.

Water is the source of life, energy and absolution to many communities around the Andean mountains.
The natural history of the Inca Sacred Valley is a tale of mighty glacial rivers carving through solid earth to shape one of the most environmentally diverse basin in the Peruvian highlands.
Cutting through the steep walls of the fertile Sacred Valley, 20 km to the North of Cuzco, surrounded by foothills and snowy peaks that climb higher and higher, the Uru'Bamba River, known in Quechua as Willcamayu, was, for the Incas, a direct reflection of the celestial river known to them as "Mayu" (Milky Way). Its flow was thought to mimic the shape of Mayu.
The Uru'Bamba Sacred Valley stretches around 100 km East to West along the Sacred Uru'Bamba River, from Pisac to Maccu Picchu, and is fed by tributaries cascading down the surrounded valleys and gorges.
The Milky Way, our own galaxy containing the solar system, is a barred spiral galaxy with roughly 400 billion stars. The stars, along with gas and dust, appear like a band of light in the sky from Earth. The galaxy stretches between 100,000 to 120,000 light-years in diameter.
For the Incas, whose empire was the largest in the Americas, the Milky way (Mayu) was a life-giver River in the heavens with its earthly counterpart -the sacred Uru'Bamba River, in the Sacred Valley. The Incas took control of the highlands region and the Sacred Valley along the Uru'Bamba River that was favored for its low elevations compared to other nearby areas, and warmer temperatures. Then they chose the Valley as their religious center and an agrarian laboratory. The growth of the unique corn that was used to make their fermented chicha for their religious festivals and ceremonial feasts, nestled there on the steep sides of the Valley's hills, and extensive irrigation systems were built transforming the region into an agricultural breadbasket. Besides the sacred corn, potatoes, quinoa, amaranth, etc. grew in the fields using the methods that the Inca developed through the knowledge of Mayu, and the dual forces of the universe acting in it that were reflected in the River's flow.
The Incas grouped the constellations into 2 different types: -luminous made up of sparkling stars that depicted geometric forms in the sky and were seen as inanimate, and -dark cloudy ones, contained within the dark blotches of the Milky Way, were seen as living forms, representing the silhouettes of animals that came to drink from the waters of the celestial River, obscuring the heavenly glow of Mayu.
In our present days, the sacred reflection of the heavenly River on earth, passes important ruins like Machu Picchu and the Raqch'i (Vira'Cocha) temple. The Incas observed  that the earthly manifestation of the sacred river was a collection point of the sacred water, that would then feed into the sky.
Today, the mountains with its crispy and thin air and the massive sky tumbling into the exceptional landscapes, Quechua-speaking farmers still work in the sacred fields  with methods unchanged since the ancient Inca era. But while the Sacred Valley is still deeply rooted in its history, the landscape is now a blend of the ancient and the modern world.
The Urubamba River is now best known for its great rafting and kayaking options. In some places, the sacred river passes marvelous stretches of jungle and thrilling rapids. As such, it offers travelers an exciting way to experience the outdoors from within the Sacred Valley. The river flow is at its fullest  between December and May -this is also when the rapids are best. When the water level drops from June through November, rafting is typically done along the lower section of the river between Ollanta-y-Tambo and Chilca.
The Uru'Bamba River originates on the slopes of the Cunu'Rana in the Puno Region, Melgar Province, near La Raya mountain range pass. The length of the River is 724 km. The Cunu'Rana (name comes from potatoes that belongs to the Quini group) is about 5,420m/17,782ft high, and lies South East of La Raya mountain pass near the road and railway that connects Cuzco and Juliaca.
The altitude at La Raya mountain pass, which makes the border between the regions of Cuzco and Puno, the Quechua and the Aymara speaking communities , is 4,335 meters
The Pongo of Mainique, a water gap 45m/50yd wide and 3km/2mi long, with 900m (3,000ft) to 300m(1,00ft)high cliffs, is the only break in the entire Vilcabamba mountain range that divides the Urubamba River between Upper and Lower Urubamba. The pongo is considered the most dangerous and turbulent whitewater pass on the Urubamba, however many boats traverse it, depending on seasonal river conditions. It is crossed by the Inca bridge, ancient secret entrance to Machu Picchu. The pongo is also a global biodiversity hotspot; 6 sq mi of rain-forest around the canyon contains more species of life than any other similar-sized area on Earth.

ANCIENT ANDEAN TEMPLE OF THE CROSSING HANDS.

A series of ritual buildings were constructed in the Andean mountains drainages by the ancient settlers of the Andes between 3,000 and 1,200 BC, that preceded the introduction of ceramics.
A number of these ritual centers has been unearthed in the highland zones that are lower than the Puna, considerable distances separates them, and their architectural designs are remarkable similar.
The ancient culture of Kotosh Waira-Jirca existed approximately from 1800BC to 1300BC. The settlement was concentrated in the Huanuco River basin, only 6 km West of today Huanuco along the La Union road. Huanuco is known for its rough topography comprising parts of the Sierra (the Andes shelter in which the very last variety of climates exists) and the High Jungle regions, and for the richness of its soil.
The culture of Kotosh predates the Chavin culture  by more than a thousand years, then it continued throughout the Inca occupation, right up to the arrival of the Europeans settlers to South America.
The archaeological site contains a series of overlapping buildings with 6 periods of continuous occupation. The 3 overlapping temples are: -Nichitos (Niches), -Blanco (White), -Manos Cruzadas (Crossed Hands). The site gave birth to the term Kotosh Religious Tradition and the term is used by archaeologists to refer to the ritual buildings that were constructed in the mountains drainages of the Andes between 3,000BC and 1,800 BC.
Today, more than 4,000 years old, the "Temple of the Crossed Hands" (Templo de Las Manos Cruzadas) is considered one of the oldest temples in Peru and America. It lies in ruins and its most unique feature is the crossed-hands symbol carved prominently in stone on the Temple walls. The sculpture of the Crossed Hands can be seen next to the main Niche. On one of the sculptures, the Right Hand rests on the Left, and on the other, the Left Hand rests on the Right. It is believed that this correspond to the earliest notion of the universal duality, a central theme which was the core in the Andean ideology through the time of the Incas.
The first evidence of massive stone constructions from about 2,000 BC suggests that complicated building work of human enterprise began in this area before anyone else on the American continent.
Their settlers cultivated crops, used marine resources, built permanent settlements and multi-layered ceremonial buildings. Artifacts of later origin, mostly belonging to Chavin culture were also unearthed. The culture stratum was situated directly beneath the Chavin culture stratum. At this stage, unique Andean maize cultivation appeared, followed by beans, squash, cassava, potatoes, etc.

THE ANCIENT SETTLERS OF COLOMBIAN ANDES.

The history of human habitation in the Andean region of South America stretches from 15,000BC to the present day. The habitation of the region has been challenged by its unique geography and climate, leading to the development of unique cultural and societal organization.
Colombia is named after Christopher Columbus, even though he never set foot on the soil. It was Alonso de Ojeda, one of Columbus' companions on his 2nd voyage, who was the 1st European to set foot on the land in 1499. He briefly explored the Sierra Nevada of St. Martha and was astonished by the wealth of the local people. Their gold and their stories about fabulous treasures inland gave birth to the myth of "El Dorado," a mysterious kingdom abundant in gold. In its most extreme interpretation, "El Dorado was believed to be a land of gold mountains littered with emeralds and the people of the land threw gold offerings into its sacred waters. From the moment the Europeans arrived in 1509, their obsession with EL Dorado became the principal force driving them into the interior. The population at that time numbered between 1.5 and 2 million spread out across the Andean mountains.
Attracted by the presumed riches of the land, the shores became the target of numerous expeditions, and several short-lived settlements were founded along the coast. In 1525 the first stones of St Martha were laid and in 1533 Cartagena was found and soon became the principal center of trade.
Colombia is considered the only overland gateway to South America and the route pioneered by the first ancient settlers, who migrated from other lands. The territory of the Andean mountains that form the core of the land, was the location of the most significant earliest settlements.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the ancient Colombian Andes had well-established hunter-gatherer cultures, with the earliest human habitants concentrated along the Caribbean coast and the Andean mountains.
The Cave system of 'El Abra' site, located just North of Bogota, is considered among the very first human settlements in the Americas. In 1960 ancient petro-glyphs and mastodon bones were uncovered and carbon dated around 11,500BC.
In 3,000BC, two civilizations lived in the adjacent River Valleys of the Magdalena and the Cauca. Divided by impossible-to-cross peaks, the Rivers were the highways, and near St. Agustin lie the headwaters of both rivers. Both civilizations met at this point to trade, to worship and to bury their dead. 500 statues (the largest 7m high) are found scattered over a wide area surrounding St. Agustin. Many of them are anthropomorphic figures, some realistic, others resembling masked monsters. There are also sculptures depicting sacred animals such as the condor, jaguar, and frog. A great deal of pottery was also uncovered around the area. They did not have a written language and the people disappeared many centuries before the European arrival, but their mystical legacy is one of the most important archaeological sites on the continent.
After St. Agustin, Tierra-Adentro (Under-the-ground) is another remarkable and awe-inspiring site. While St. Agustin is noted for its statuary, Tierra-Adentro is noted for its elaborate underground tombs. So far, 100 of this unusual funeral temples have been unearthed surrounded by the Andean mountain scenery. Their art reveals a high degree of skill in gold and pottery.
Most of the ancient population evolved from 3 main streams: -Quimbayas, who inhabited the Western slopes of the Central Cordillera; -Chibchas, who were skilled in farming, mining, and metal work; -Caribes, a type of warlike people who ultimately migrated to Eastern South America and the Caribbean islands.
The tribal cultures that still continue to thrive today are:
-Ar'Huaco, with a population of 27,000, concentrate in Northern Colombia. They believe the Sierra Nevada of St. Martha is the heart of the world and that the planet's well being depends on it.
-Awa, with a population of 32,000, inhabits the forests of Northern Ecuador and Souther Colombia. Their habitat is considered the most bio-diverse places on the planet. Traditionally hunter-gatherers, today they also farm livestock and grow a broad variety of vegetables.
-Kogi, with a population of 20,000, still live in much the same way their ancestors did (Tairona). They live in stone and thatch huts, worshiping 'Mother Nature'(Aluna) and viewing the Earth as a living being and humanity as its children. They have lived in the Sierra Nevada of St Martha since the pre-European era.
-Muisca, number approximately 10,000 now. As a civilization they occupied around 18,000 sq mi in Colombia's Eastern Range before the European arrival. They remain as an active defenders of the region's natural resources as well as the rights of its Andean communities.
-Nukak, with a population of 500 nomadic hunter-gatherers from the fringe of the Amazon basin, this tribe became famous as an "un-contacted people" discovered in the early '80s. They are expert hunters using blowguns and darts coated with a poison (curare manyi) made from various plants. Endangered by disease and other political encounters, they are now a focus of indigenous rights campaigns by the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia.
-Wayuu, the largest tribe with a population of around 450,000. Nearly a third of them are based in Northern Colombia, the rest live in North West Venezuela. Inhabiting in the arid the Guajira Peninsula, the matriarchal Wayuu were among the few tribes never successfully subjugated by the European settlers, even though the Europeans tried harder, but they never won the cause. Their language is related to the Arawak family of language predominant in the Caribbean, and remains in regular usage today.

THE ANCIENT ANDEAN MOUNTAIN SETTLERS.

The Andes or Andean Mountains (Cordillera de los Andes) are the longest continental mountain range in the world and the highest mountain range outside Asia. They form a continuous highland along the Western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000km / 4,300mi long, about 200 to 700km /120 to 430mi wide, and of an average height of about 4,000m / 13,000ft.
The bounds of the former Inca realm of the Tahuantinsuyo, centered in the Andean Mountains and the largest in the world in the early 16th century, stretched throughout the Andes from North to South. Its area incorporates now 7 South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its political and administrative structure was the most sophisticated found among the ancient America, especially for its location and ways of survival. It was predominantly agricultural.
The Andes also are the place in which several high plains (tablelands) raise significantly above the surrounding area with steep slopes -some of which host major cities such as Quito, Bogota, Arequipa, Medellin, Sucre, Merida and La Paz. The Peruvian-Bolivian Plateau in West-Central South America is the world's second highest plateau on Earth outside the Tibet. The bulk of it lies now in Bolivia, but its Northern parts lies in Peru.
The Andean model of accessing and distributing resources, particularly in the arid North West Coast of Peru and in the highland plateaus along the Andean Mountains was unique. It is important to mention that only about 2% of the land in the Andes is arable. The Inca agriculture was the culmination of thousands of years of farming and herding in the high mountains, the coastal deserts, and the rain-forest of the Amazon basin. This 3 radically different environments were all part of their land and required different technologies for agriculture. They did not have many features that helped many civilizations to grow in the Old World. They did not use the wheel. They did not have animals to ride on and draft animals that could pull wagons and plows. The did not use iron or steel. And above all they did not use money and did not have a writing system.
The need to access the proper land for specific crops or animals were far more important tasks in direct relation to survival techniques that meant a totally different perspective of settling and develop a type of lifestyle. Potatoes of different kind (400 varieties), corn (jumbo size without the sweet flavor exists in a great variety of flavors), and quinoa were among the unique crops and camelids (llamas and alpacas) and guinea pigs were the unique domesticated animals.
A line-ages miniature colonies were created to overcome the adversities of the terrain and weather. The adaptation and agricultural technologies of ancient settlers allowed them to organize production of a diverse range of crops from the arid coast, the high and cold mountains, and the humid jungle regions, which they redistribute to villages that did not have access to other regions. Despite of all these barriers, the Incas were still able to construct one of the greatest imperial states in human history based on a concept of reciprocity.
The Inca empire functioned largely without marketplaces. Instead, exchange of goods and services governed by the spirit of reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers was the base of their philosophy of life. '
Taxes' consisted of labour obligation of a person to the Empire in building government related projects for the sake of their own community. The reciprocal action from the government was granting access to new lands and goods and provide food and drink in all celebratory feasts, that were quite a lot. This period of employment represented a third of a normal year period. This concept is still applied in the remote areas in which the influence of modern lifestyle is still unable to reach.
The Ayllu, as the word itself means, refers to a network of families in a given area. It is and ancient Andean system of governing councils and it still is the traditional form especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. The supreme leader has the responsibility of overseen the vast network of the ayllus. Ayllus are distinguished by their self-sustainability, commonly held territory and relations of reciprocity. Members engage in shared collective labor (Quechua: Minga) and in reciprocal exchanges of assistance (Quechua: Ayni).