THE EUROPEAN 100 YEARS OF WAR PRIOR THE INVASION OF AMERICA.

The 100 Years War (1337-1453) inflicted so much misery on France. Farmlands were laid waste, the population was decimated by war, famine, and the Black Death. Marauders terrorized the countryside. Civil wars (Jacquerie; Cabochiens; Armagnacs; and Burgundians) and local wars (War of the Breton Succession) increased the destruction and social disintegration.
The 100 Years War was fought between France and England and lasted 116 years. The war started because Charles IV of France died in 1328 without a son. Edward III of England then believed he had the right to become the new king of France through his mother, Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France.
Edward was the eldest son Edward II and Isabella. She married Edward II in 1308. Neglected and mistreated by Edward, Isabella nourished hatred for the royal favorites, the Despensers, who were responsible (1324) for the confiscation of her states. Their son, Edward III was made Earl of Chester in 1320 and duke of Aquitaine in 1325. In 1325 she was sent to France with her son Edward, the future Edward III, to negotiate with her brother Charles IV over Gascony. Once there, she ignored royal orders to return to England with her son. Becoming the mistress of Roger de Mortimer, late 1st Earl of March, English noblemen, she plotted with him to invade England. Their invasion (1326) was successful.  Mortimer inherited (1304) vast estates and the title of his father, Edmund, 7th baron of Wigmore. Appointed lieutenant of Ireland (1336), he was instrumental in securing the defeat of Edward Bruce, Scottish king of Ireland (1316-1318), brother of Robert I of Scotland,  and thus was able to consolidate his own holdings in Ireland. After Edward II was forced to abdicate by Isabella and Mortimer, Edward III was enthroned as king early in 1327, although the real power was in fact exercised by Isabella and Mortimer. They caused the murder of Edward II and began a corrupt rule in England and at the same time acquired a great wealth. In 1328 Edward married Philippa of Hainaut, and in 1330 his first son, Edward the Black Prince, was born.  
In 1327,  Edward, who had gone to Scotland on an unsuccessful expedition, resented the terms of the treaty of North-Hampton (1328), by which he had renounced the Scottish throne, and decided to support Edward de Baliol's claim to the Scottish throne  against the young Scottish king David II. Baliol invaded Scotland in 1332 and was crowned at Scone. He was soon driven out.
In 1330, Edward seized power over the English crown and had Mortimer executed and forced Isabella, to retire. In 1334, Edward III, came to Scotland again to support Baliol and together defeated the forces of the young David II at Halidon Hill. Then Edward de Baliol as king ceded several Southern counties to Edward III. Baliol was driven out again and David II, who had been in France, returned in 1341 as king. In 1356 Baliol retired surrendering his title as king to Edward III.
Then the basic cause of the 100 Years War was a dynastic quarrel that originated when the conquest of England by William of Normandy created a state lying on both sides (France and England) in the English Channel, also known as The Arm of the Atlantic and La Manche (the sleeve).
In the 14th century the English kings held the duchy of Guienne, in South West France which had no geographic unity and included part of the Aquitaine basin and part of the Central Highlands in South Central France. The highlands cover almost a 6th of the surface of France. They English resented paying homage to the French kings and they feared the increasing control exerted by the French crown over its great feudal vassals.
Then the immediate causes of the 100 Years War were the dissatisfaction of Edward III of England with the nonfulfillment by Philip VI of France of his pledges to restore a part of Guienne taken by Charles IV; the English attempt to control Flanders, an important market for English wool and a source of cloth; and Philip's support of Scotland against England.
Guienne was synonymous with Aquitaine until the 100 Years War. It passed to England through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II in 1152. Bordeaux is the historical capital, the chief port, and the center of the wine industry.
The birth of the lyric poetry of the troubadours (aristocratic poet-musicians) occurred in Guienne from the end of the 11th century through the 13 century. Many of them were noblemen and crusader knights and some were kings, e.g., Richard I, Coeur de Lion; Thibaut IV, king of Navarre; and Alfonso X, king of Castile and Leon. Of the more than 400 known troubadours living between 1090 and 1292 the most famous are -Jaufre Rudel de Blaia, -Bernart de Ventadorn, -Peire Vidal (1180-1206, of Toulouse, traveled widely in Italy, Cyprus, Hungary, Spain and Malta. Richard I Coeur de Lion was one of his patrons. He involved himself in numerous escapades and he was notable for his strong personal feelings and simple style), -Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, -Folquet de Marseille (archibishop of Toulouse, -Bertrand de Born, -Arnaut Daniel, -Gaucelm Faidit, -Raimon de Mirabal, -and Guiraut Riquier. Their lyrics were sung and accompanied by instruments that duplicated the melody (all music preserved is monophonic). The poems were written in the Southern dialect called 'langue d'oc.' The most common forms were political poems, morning songs, pastorals, and disputes. The favorite subjects were courtly love, war, and nature. Their influence spread to central and North France, where their counterparts were the trouveres. In Germany they were imitated by the minnesingers. The tradition was also carried to Spain and Italy.
The war is dated from 1337, when Edward III of England assumed the title of king of France, a title held by Philip IV. Edward first invaded France from the Low Countries (1339-40) North West of Europe comprising the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, with small success on land but defeating (1340) a French fleet at the Battle of Sluis. In 1346 Edward won the Battle of Crecy and besieged Calais, which surrendered in 1347. In 1356 he won the Battle of Poitiers, capturing King John II of France. After prolonged negotiations, the Treaty of Bretigny was signed (1360); England received Calais and all of Aquitaine, as well as a large ransom for the captive king.
The Gascon nobles, oppressively taxed by Edward the Black Prince, appealed (1369) to King Charles V. The war was renewed and by 1373, Bertrand Du Guesclin, greatest French soldier of his time, and very knowledgeable of the tactics used by both parties, won back most of the lost French territories.
In 1415, Henry V of England renewed the English claims, took Harfleur and defeated France's knights at Agincourt. By1419 he had subdued Normandy. Philip the Good mediated between Henry V and Charles VI of France and Charles recognized Henry as heir to the crown of France.
By 1429 the English and their Burgundian allies were masters of all France North of the Loire, but in that year Joan of Arc raised the siege of Orleans and saw Charles VII crowned king of France. Her capture by the Burgundians and her judicial murder did not stop the renewal of French successes.
In 1435, Charles obtained the alliance of Burgundy. By 1450 the French re-conquered Normandy and by 1451 all Guienne but Bordeaux was taken. After the fall of Bordeaux (1453), England retained only Calais, which was not conquered by France until 1558. England, torn by the War of the Roses, made no further attempt to conquer France.
The successor of Charles VII, Louis XI benefited from all the chaos that the 100 Years of War brought to France. He began his reign dismissing many of his father's best advisers, and also deserted his former allies and began the task of centralizing authority in the crown. A model that later was followed by all the crowns of Europe. A born diplomat, Louis skillfully checked his foreign and domestic enemies and set up an efficient central administration. He used commissions to give his acts the appearance of popular approval. He diminished the power and the prestige of the courts. He intervened freely in church affairs. he imposed heavy taxes, using much of the revenue to purchase support. he encouraged industry and expanded domestic and foreign trade. He preferred men of humble origin using them as his personal advisors to lecturing himself how to move the popular mass with false hope. Fearing assassination, he spent his last years in virtual self-imprisonment near Tours, capital of Touraine in West central France. This city was a center of medieval Christian learning and favored by many kings. It was there that Charles Martel halted (732) the Moorish conquest of Europe. The city has produced painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, and tapestry weavers.

THE VALLEY OF THE ANDEAN MANTARO RIVER.

The Mantaro Valley is renowned as an area containing many archaeological sites. It was inhabited by a self-governing nation, the Huancas, a self-governing nation with a reputation for producing strong warriors and whose spiritual practices placed an emphasis on remembering their ancestors' role in the mystique of the Mantaro River. The Huanca people were eventually subdued during the reign of the Inca Pacha-Cutec, and some of them, in revenge for their lost of freedom, took sides with the Spanish people who planned the take over the land by capturing and execute the last Inca, Atahualpa.
Archaeologists have focused on the Inca storage silos (qullqas) in the Mantaro Valley which was one of the largest and most fertile areas of the Inca empire. The Incas placed great emphasis on storing their agricultural products and other goods and the Valley has more storage silos than any other region in Peru. Half of the storage silos were placed in the center of this maize and potato producing area and the other half were scattered among 48 compounds along the course of the River. In total, the Valley had a storage area that supplied and equipped an army of 35,000 Andean warriors during the time of the European invasion, probably the largest storage facilities in the Inca empire and pre-Columbian America.
The North- South inter-Andean Mantaro Valley located in the Junin region, is about 60 km (37 mi) long between the cities of Jauja and Huancayo, 200 km (120 mi) East of Lima, Peru.
The Valley's weather is divided into 3 distinct seasons -the rainy season from November to April, -the winter season from May to July, -and the dry season, with strong winds from August to October.
To the average Andean people, both landscape weather play a crucial marriage role for health and prosperity, and abundance from year to year determine how the interrelation was achieved. One legend in particular reflects this interrelationship. This is the story of a warrior who courts a mermaid in Lake Paca (4 km (2.5 mi) North of the historic Jauja, which was once the first capital of Peru). The lake is one of the 3 lakes is the Mantaro River Valley in the central highlands formed by high Cordillera ranges and the only lake in the Paca Valley that has water throughout the year. The warrior courted the mermaid every night. She cried and moaned for him to join her then as usual she disappeared beneath the surface. One night, she disappeared into the water, and the warrior jumped in after her. He looked around under the water until he ran out of air and gave up his breath. His body was lost, but soon after a mountain range appeared in the shape of a man's body. The story of this warrior explains the deep connection that the local people of the Paca town have with the Mantaro Valley.
The River bisects the valley, emerging from a steep gorge at the Northern end of the Valley and entering another steep gorge at its Southern end, flowing through the fertile valley which produce different kind of potatoes, maize, and vegetables among other Andean crops. The Valley's floor averages about 10 km (6.2 mi) wide at elevations ranging from 3,150 m (10,330 ft) to 3,500 m (11,500 ft). The highest mountain in the area is Huayta-Pallana, 15 m (9.3 mi) North East of Huancayo, which has an alevation of 5,567 m (18,264 ft). The land on either side rises to mountain ranges of more than 4,500 m (14,800 ft) elevation, and consists of beautiful landscapes and many trails linking the small Andean villages that are rich in culture,  traditional food, music, dances, and handcrafts.
Each Andean village has its own handcraft specialty. You can simply watch them work. Also the market place has its dedicated day for each one of them:
-Sunday:   Dominical Festival of Huancayo, Conception, Jauja, and Mito.
-Monday:  Huayu-Cachi, San Agustin of Cajas.
-Tuesday:  Pucara, Hualhuas.
-Wednesday:  San Jeronimo of Tunan, Jauja and Viquez.
-Thursday: The Tambo, Huancan and Sapa-Llanga.
-Friday:     Ahuac, Chongos Bajo and Cochas Chico.
Saturday:  Chupaca, Matahuasi, Lloclla-Pampa and Jauja.
The Hualhuas' specialty is -tapestry weaving looms. The San Jeronimo of Tunan's specialty is -silver filigree jewelry. The Cochas' specialty is -Gourd carvings. The San Agustin of Cajas' specialty is -hats of sheep wool. The Aco's specialty is -ceramics. The Mito's specialty is -wooden masks. The Viquez' s specialty is -colorful belts and blankets made of back strap looms. The Molino's specialty is -wood carving. The Ingenio's specialty is -trout farming.

THE PEOPLE OF PATAGONIA.

Patagonia is the name given to a sparsely populated region located at the Southernmost end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The surface of the land is very varied. Trackless plains rise in gently graded terraces to the lofty ranges of the Andes, between which there is a mighty network of lakes and lagoons.
The name Patagonia comes from the word "Patagon" used to describe the ancient people of the region who tended to be taller than the ancient Europeans. They were suppose to have exceeded at least double the normal human height.
There are no written records about their ancient legends and myths since their religious beliefs were passed down orally. Central to their cosmological beliefs was the idea of a Creator, who was embodied in four components: an older man, an older woman, a young man and a young woman. They also had a very complex knowledge of the spiritual world and how it coexisted with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances dictated the spiritual practices to be followed. The most well known ritual ceremony was "the general praying" done in extreme spiritual and social circumstances.
The existence of these Patagonian people were brought to light for the first time in the 1520s when Ferdinand Magellan and his crew saw them while exploring the coastline of South America en route to their circumnavigation.
Human habitation of the region dates back thousands of years, with some early archaeological findings in the area dated to at least the 13th millennium BC. Hearths, stone scrapers, animal remains have been found East of the Andes. The Cave of the Hands is a famous site in Santa Cruz, Argentina. The cave at the foot of a cliff is covered in wall paintings, particularly the negative images of hundreds of hands.
The hunting of guanaco (camelid native to the region) was the primary source of food for these fierce people which were hunter-gatherers living as nomads, which means living with limited possessions, as they had to move across long distances. Everything from the guanaco was used: the meat and blood were used for food, the fat to grease their bodies during winter, and the hide to make clothing and canopies. They also hunted whales, sea mammals, small rodents and sea birds and gathered fruits that grew during the regional summer. Those fruits were the only sweet foods in their diet.
Their rock tools were made of obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass, found in only certain parts of the region, so these people had to make long journeys to renew their supplies.
The people of the Patagonia region of today are called Tehuelche that is in fact a collective name for all the communities that live in there. The newly-established ranches in the land led the communities to break down into smaller groups. The invasion of the Patagonia territory by foreign forces in the 1870s led to a devastating killing of a massive number of native people, as well as driving thousands from their homeland.

THE ANDEAN PEOPLE AND THEIR HARVEST.

The Incas, and the civilizations before them, were masters of their harsh climate as they build on knowledge developed over about 11,000 years of farming in the highlands of the Andes.
The daytime calendar was very important to them, since they depended on it to fix the days of planting. The night time calendar or lunar calendar marked the days of all festivals.
The Andes are some of the tallest mountains in the world. Yet the ancient Andean people obtained harvests from the sharp slopes and its intermittent waterways.
The Andean civilization is one of the five pristine civilizations worldwide which were not derivative from other civilizations. Most Andean crops were likewise pristine and not known to other civilizations.
The Andean people employed stones of different heights, widths and angles to create the best structures of water retention and drainage systems. The stone retaining walls absorbed the heat during the day and slowly released it to the soil as temperatures plunged at night, keeping sensitive plant roots warm during the frosty nights and expanding the growing season.
The Andean people also built cisterns and irrigation canals that snaked and angled down and around the mountains. They cut terraces into the hillsides and filled them with dirt, gravel and sand, and made them progressively steeper, from the valleys up the slopes. The terraces were extremely efficient at conserving scarce water from rain. In this way the whole hill was brought under cultivation.
During the Inca civilization, the system of terraces covered about a million hectares throughout the Peruvian highlands that fed the vast empire. The Inca terraces are even today the most sophisticated in the world.
Staple crops from about 1000 meters to 3900 meters were the different varieties of potatoes. Quinoa was grown from about 2300 meters to 3900 meters. Maize was the principal crop grown up to an elevation of 3200 meters in favorable locations. Cassava (yuca) was a major crop of the lowlands.
In addition to these staple crops the andean people of the Inca empire cultivated a great variety of exotic fruits, vegetables, spices and medicinal plants. Passion fruit (maracuya) can be grown from 2000 to 3200 meters, mountain papaya from 500 to 2700 meters, naranjilla or lulo from 500 to 2300 meters, and  the golden berry or ciruela from 500 to 2800 meters.
The Andean people of today are rebuilding the terraces and irrigation systems and reclaiming traditional crops and methods of planting. Ancient agricultural techniques are more productive and more efficient in terms of water use and offer simple solutions to help protect communities' food supply in the face of climate change. Glacial melt and the seasonal rains are already affected by it.

THE ANDEAN NEUROSURGEONS.

The act of drilling a hole into one's skull, has its roots in the mystical/therapeutic practices of ancient civilizations. Archaeologists have unearthed trepanned bone fragments in every continent except Antarctica, with some samples dating as far back as 10,000 BC.
Neurosurgeons emerged in the Andean Mountains by about 3,500 years ago in small communities near the eventual Inca heartland in the Peruvian Andes mountains.
The Andean surgeons in ancient Peru commonly and successfully removed small portions of the skull in mostly male patients to treat head injuries. A similar procedure is  performed today to relieve pressure caused by fluid buildup after suffering a severe head trauma.
The Incas that basically covered the land of today Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Northern Chile, and Northern Argentina (the largest empire of the World geographically in the highlands of the Andes), surprisingly widespread the practice of drilling a hole into one's skull, and it was done all over their territory.
The Inca surgeons mastered certain highly skilled methods that were very successful, performing them safely and frequently. They avoided cutting cranial muscles and vulnerable parts of the skull. They also managed not to severe internal blood vessels or the membrane encasing the brain. Never before has a scientist ever seen a part of a bone extracted with such precision.
Later studies of many other skulls unearthed in the Andean soil led to the discovery of a whole range of different surgical techniques. Peru has more skulls with trepanation than everywhere else in the World combined. The operations were conducted without the modern antibiotics or the use of anesthesia, instead medicinal plants were used.
Surgical instruments for trepanation were made of obsidian, gold, silver and copper. Surgeons used four different techniques of surgery: they either drilled a hole in the cranium, or scraped a hole, or sawed out a rectangular bone fragment, or cut out a rounded piece of bone that could be reinserted after the operation was completed.
The first Inca skulls with more than five holes were found in a sacred burial cave near the road to Machu Picchu. A couple of skulls were laced with surgical holes which were perfectly circular and consistent in size. Other skulls showed that on top of the cranium a rectangular piece of bone had been removed.
In burial caves excavated in the South-Central Andean Province of Andahuaylas in Peru, were unearthed the remains of 32 individuals. Among them, 45 separate trepanation procedures were in evidence. In many cases, both the original wound and the trepanation healed. The findings also showed that the surgeons possessed a detailed knowledge of cranial anatomy.
Despite the studies carried out, the trepanation of the skull in the time of the Incas remains as one of the greatest mysteries of the history of medicine. The Incas by far surpassed the Europeans in the art of opening skulls for medical purposes. The nature of numerous wounds to the head and the fact that human body had to endure its survival at high altitude levels made the Incas look for ways to treat precisely such injuries. The Incas learned to perform trepanation of the skull in order to save the life of wounded peasants and even return them to their active life.