Sillar is a variety of igneous, volcanic rock of silica-rich composition, found as pyroclastic flow deposits of tuff near volcanoes in Southern Peru. For example the now-extinct Chachani volcano which erupted flows of sillar during the Ice Age (2'588,000 to 11,700), is the highest of the mountains near the city of Arequipa and the 84th highest summit of the Andes, that as a result of the very low precipitation, it does not have a permanent ice cap. The massif of the volcano formed by 6 and 8 separate craters, erosion has only left one recognizable crater in the Western part of the complex. Climbing Chachani is popular, though the altitude is highly challenging for those who are not fully acclimatized.
Misti, also known as Putina, in the city of Arequipa located at 2,328m/7,638ft of elevation, is also a volcano of andesite, dacite, and sillar. This volcano has a seasonal snow-capped, symmetrical cone. It stands at 5,822m/19,101ft above sea level and lies between Chachani (6,075m/19,931ft) and Pichu Pichu volcano (5,669m/18,599ft). Its last eruption was in 1985, 198 years after its previous documented eruption. The volcano has 3 concentric craters. In the inner crater an opening emits steam and gases that forms when when superheated water vaporizes as its pressure drops when it emerges from the ground. Near the inner crater 6 Inca mummies and very rare Inca artifacts were found in 1998 during a month-long excavation directed by 2 archaeologists. These findings are currently stored at the Museum of Andean Sanctuaries in Arequipa.
A local tradition states that Inca Mayta Capac, the 4th Inca of the Kingdom of Cuzco and great warrior who conquered territories as far as Lake Titicaca, Arequipa, and Potosi, received a petition from his subjects to reach the Valley of the River Chili which cross the central part of the area from North to South. They asked the Inca for permission to stay in the region as they were impressed by the beauty of the landscape and the mild climate. The Inca answered in Quechua "Ari qhipay" meaning "Yes, stay." Chroniclers suggested that the name of the city came from ancient Aymara phrase, "Ari qquepan," meaning "trumpet sound," in reference to the sound produced from blowing into an empty conch-like seashell. To the North and East of Arequipa are the Andes mountains, while to the South and West are minor mountain ranges associated to the Andes.
Pre-Inca cultures domesticated llamas and became sedentary with the development of agriculture. During this time, major irrigation channels were built within the Valley of the Chili River, which allowed the development of agriculture by means of terraces built on both sides of the Valley.
The Yarabaya and Chimbe settled in the city's current location, and together with the Cabana and Collagua tribes they developed an agrarian economy in the Valley.
When the Inca Mayta Capac arrived in the Valley of the Chili River, he didn't built cities, instead, he gave orders to his settlers from lands within the empire to move and settle in the Valley only to the purpose of gaining control of the existing population, perform intelligence tasks and strengthen the border enclaves as a way to absorb the unconquered villages by the method of submission. Lands were then distributed among 3,000 families who founded the towns of Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Socabaya, Characato and others, towns that still exist nowadays.
The European foundation of Arequipa was performed on August 15, 1540 in the Valley of the Chili River that were occupied by locals. At the time of the foundation, Arequipa had already a european city council, because the foundation of the town occurred in part as a relocation of european folks from Camana, a coastal city. The European founders of Arequipa designed the city plan as resembling a checkerboard made of 56 blocks, each one of "400 Castilian feet (111.40m)" per side. Each block comprised 4 or 8 land lots, which were distributed according to the status of the new owners. Charles V of Germany and I of Spain gave the small town a status of "city"by Royal Decree on September 22, 1541. As time passed, some religious institutions came to occupy an entire block as were the cases of the Convent of Santa Catalina and San Francisco Monastery. Among the first public european works carried out in the city were the Main Church, the City Hall, the bridge on the Chili River and the monastery of Our Lady of Garcia.
Over three centuries, the urban area grew at the expense of the countryside, a process that has worsened in recent decades. The population of the city was mostly European origin, which represented a strong following of Spain crown. As a result, the Spanish Monarchy gave the city the title of Faithful by Royal Charter in 1805. The city remained under European control until the Battle of Ayacucho (1824), due to struggles for local political power. The central part of the city is crossed by the Chili Valley and the Valley itself open toward the coast playing a key role in allowing Arequipa to be a city that strategically links the coastal and highland regions of Southern Peru. Its privileged location at the crossroads of the european trade route of silver during colonial times, after independence, the wool trade route, allowed Arequipa to accumulate administrative and commercial and industrial power. Arequipa not only became the birthplace of significant political figures, but also the scene of several important political movements that achieved national prominence, thus establishing the importance of Arequipa as the country's second city and in frequent rivalry with Lima, the capital city of Peru.
Sillar has been used as a building stone in Peru since Pre-Inca times. Many colonial buildings in the city of Arequipa are made of sillar. To give you an example, the arches of the "Mirador (Lookout) of Yanahuara" from which the entire city can be appreciate.
In the late 1950s the city rapidly grew, especially the peripheral areas. Industrial activities located in areas near the city center, moved outwards to the industrial zone (Industrial Park), causing the former industrial areas to become commercial zones.
The historical centre of Arequipa, built in volcanic sillar rock, represents an invasion of European over native building techniques and characteristics, expressed in the admirable work of Inca masons covered by colonial masters. This combination of influences is illustrated by the city's walls, archways and vaults, courtyards and open spaces.
The global radiation recorded in the city is considered one of the highest levels of radiation in South America and the highest in Peru. This phenomenon is due to its proximity to the area of influence of the Atacama Desert and pollution at every stage,
Sunday, May 28, 2017
Thursday, May 25, 2017
THE RESTLESS SABANCAYA.
Sabancaya is an active 5,976m/19,606ft conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, pyroclasts, pumice, and volcanic ash, in the Andes of Southern Peru. It is the most active volcano in Peru and is part of a 20km/12mi North-South chain of 3 major volcanoes, including the extinct and eroded 6,025m/19,767ft volcano Hualca-Hualca at the Northern end, the dormant 6,288m/20,630ft volcano Ampato to the South, and Sabancaya in the middle.
Sabancaya hosts several glaciers which cover an area of about 3.5 sq km/1.4 sq mi and descend as low as 5,400m/17,700ft on its flanks.
The andesite volcano of Sabancaya has been very active during historic times, with the earliest recorded eruptions in 1695 and 1758. The andesite is an extrusive (inside out) igneous, volcanic rock and considered the intermediate type between basalt and dacite. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory minerals. It can be considered as the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks due to gravity into the mantle, andesite represents the dominant rock type in island arcs like the Caribbean Islands. The average composition of the continental crust is andesitic. Along with basalts they are a major component of the Martian crust. The name "andesite" is derived from the Andes Mountain Range.
Following over 200 years of dormancy, satellites detected an increase in thermal emission in July 1986 and intense activity resumed in December of that year.
The most sustained period of activity began with explosive eruptions on May 28, 1990, and continued over 8 years. At the height of the activity in 1994, eruptions producing large ash clouds occurred every 2 hours. It is suspected that the cone may have grown to over 6,000m / 20,000 ft during that time.
Sabancaya is considered one of the most hazardous volcanoes in Peru, along with the massive Coropuna (Arequipa) and the cone of The Misti (Arequipa). Potential hazards include mud and pyroclastic flows down the Majes, Colca, and Siguas river drainages. During the 1988 eruption, cattle died in nearby areas either directly from poisonous volcanic gases or from eating contaminated vegetation.
Sabancaya is not the only restless Andean volcano in Peru and right now it has been restless for the last 2 years, with periods of heightened activity and return to quiet. It looks like the volcano has entered a new phase of activity, producing dozens of explosive eruptions since the last November, 2016.
The first explosion generated a 3.6 earthquake and a vigorous dark grey ash plumes that have been some of the highest ever recorded. Deformation of the volcano continues, which supports the idea that magma is still rising into the edifice and sulfur dioxide emissions remain high. An state of emergency that lasted 60 days was declared across 23 districts around Sabancaya due to this ash hazard.
Sabancaya right now still remain on Yellow alert status.
Sabancaya hosts several glaciers which cover an area of about 3.5 sq km/1.4 sq mi and descend as low as 5,400m/17,700ft on its flanks.
The andesite volcano of Sabancaya has been very active during historic times, with the earliest recorded eruptions in 1695 and 1758. The andesite is an extrusive (inside out) igneous, volcanic rock and considered the intermediate type between basalt and dacite. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory minerals. It can be considered as the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks due to gravity into the mantle, andesite represents the dominant rock type in island arcs like the Caribbean Islands. The average composition of the continental crust is andesitic. Along with basalts they are a major component of the Martian crust. The name "andesite" is derived from the Andes Mountain Range.
Following over 200 years of dormancy, satellites detected an increase in thermal emission in July 1986 and intense activity resumed in December of that year.
The most sustained period of activity began with explosive eruptions on May 28, 1990, and continued over 8 years. At the height of the activity in 1994, eruptions producing large ash clouds occurred every 2 hours. It is suspected that the cone may have grown to over 6,000m / 20,000 ft during that time.
Sabancaya is considered one of the most hazardous volcanoes in Peru, along with the massive Coropuna (Arequipa) and the cone of The Misti (Arequipa). Potential hazards include mud and pyroclastic flows down the Majes, Colca, and Siguas river drainages. During the 1988 eruption, cattle died in nearby areas either directly from poisonous volcanic gases or from eating contaminated vegetation.
Sabancaya is not the only restless Andean volcano in Peru and right now it has been restless for the last 2 years, with periods of heightened activity and return to quiet. It looks like the volcano has entered a new phase of activity, producing dozens of explosive eruptions since the last November, 2016.
The first explosion generated a 3.6 earthquake and a vigorous dark grey ash plumes that have been some of the highest ever recorded. Deformation of the volcano continues, which supports the idea that magma is still rising into the edifice and sulfur dioxide emissions remain high. An state of emergency that lasted 60 days was declared across 23 districts around Sabancaya due to this ash hazard.
Sabancaya right now still remain on Yellow alert status.
Monday, May 22, 2017
THE SACRED ANDEAN RABBIT.
The Andean rabbit of the family Chinchillidae is in the Rodentia Order and consists of the Chinchillas, the Vizcachas, and their fossil relatives. This family is restricted to Southern and Western South America, mostly living in mountainous regions of the Andes but just one species living on plains. They are medium to large-sized rodents, weighing from 800g to 8 kg / 28oz to 18lb, with strong hind legs and large ears, bushy tail, and thick, soft fur.
Chinchillas are 2 species of crepuscular (activity during twilight) rodents, slightly larger and more robust than ground squirrels. They live in colonies called herds at high elevations (4,270m/14,000ft). Historically, chinchillas lived in an area that included parts of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, and Chile, but today colonies in the wild are known only in the Peruvian/Chilean Andean mountains.
Chinchilla, whose name literally means "clay," has the 2nd-densest fur of land mammals, exceeded only by the sea otter, and is named after the Chincha people who once wore its dense, velvet-like fur.
Chincha culture were prominent as sea-going traders and lived in one of the largest and fertile oasis Valley on Pacific Ocean coast of Peru. The Valley is about 220km/140mi South of Lima, Peru. The surrounding desert is virtually rainless but the Chincha River flowing down from the Andes waters an extensive Valley in the shape of a triangle about 25km/16mi North to South along the coast and extending about 20km/12mi inland. Today 22,000 hectares/54,000 acres of land is cultivated. The Pisco River Valley is located 25km/16mi South and is of similar size.
Human beings have lived along the Peruvian coast for at least 10,000 years. Irrigation agriculture in River Valleys developed later. The first settled communities known in Chincha Valley date from about 800 BC. The Chincha ruin of "Centinel"was one of the 1st archaeological sites in Peru to be investigated by archaeologists. The site covers more than 75 hectares/190 acres and consists of 2 large pyramids, the Centinela (Guardian) and Tambo of Mora, and other smaller ones, constructed of adobe bricks with adobe walls decorated with a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing. Also a black/red on white geometric painting can be seen within the principal Incas building.
The places served as habitations to the leaders of the Chincha people. The surrounded area housed artisans of silver, textiles, wood, and ceramics, and the main purpose of Centinela (Guardian)was ceremonial. Centinela (Guardian) also was the Inca capital of the kingdom of Chincha, and one of the very few places where the Incas incorporated a major state installation into a pre-existing, and still functioning non-Inca capital. The Chincha people maintained trade routes by land with their domesticated camelids reaching the Collao (High Plain) and Cuzco. They also learned seafaring skills from the Pre-Chincha people, allowing them to have extensive maritime trade and travelled as far as central America by raft. The ruler controlled 100,000 sea-going rafts illustrating the importance of Chincha and their trade. Voyages up and down the Pacific coast from Southern Colombia to Northern Chile, possibly as far as Mexico, were a long-standing practice gaining influence and control of the trade and whose location near the Inca homeland in the highlands made Chincha a convenient spot. In 1958, a system of straight roads emanating from the Centinel were discovered, suggesting a highly centralized pre-Inca administration. The place is surrounded by irrigated agricultural land, proving that the residents of Centinel exploited plant, animal and marine resources.
The Chincha people gave their name to the Chinchaysuyo Region, the NorthWestern provincial area of the Tahuantinsuyo (the land of the 4 quarters), the most populous quarter and the largest division of the empire. It encompassed the former lands of the Chimu empire and much of the Northern Andes. Chinchay in Quechua means "jaguar" and also meansd the cardinal point North. Before the Inca Civil War began, Atahualpa, son of the deceased Inca Emperor Huayna Capac, inherited and ruled the majority of Chinchaysuyo from his capital city in Quito. The 12th Inca, Huayna Capac, knowing that he was about to die, gave orders to place his heart and organs in an "Urn" and have it buried in Quito, the city he loved. Moreover, Huayna Capac gave instructions that his mummified body should be transported to Cuzco for burial beside the mummified bodies of his royal ancestors. The eldest son of Huayna Capac, the Emperor Huascar, ruled the Inca Empire from Cuzco and was displeased that Atahualpa crowned himself as Emperor in Quito.
With the arrival of the Europeans, the population of Chincha declined precipitously, mostly due to European diseases and political turmoil because of the greed for gold and silver. Demographers have estimated a 99 percvent decline in population in the first 85 years of European rule. Chincha never regained its earlier prominence.
For people in the highlands, the Andean rabbit symbolize the transformative cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
Chinchillas are 2 species of crepuscular (activity during twilight) rodents, slightly larger and more robust than ground squirrels. They live in colonies called herds at high elevations (4,270m/14,000ft). Historically, chinchillas lived in an area that included parts of Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, and Chile, but today colonies in the wild are known only in the Peruvian/Chilean Andean mountains.
Chinchilla, whose name literally means "clay," has the 2nd-densest fur of land mammals, exceeded only by the sea otter, and is named after the Chincha people who once wore its dense, velvet-like fur.
Chincha culture were prominent as sea-going traders and lived in one of the largest and fertile oasis Valley on Pacific Ocean coast of Peru. The Valley is about 220km/140mi South of Lima, Peru. The surrounding desert is virtually rainless but the Chincha River flowing down from the Andes waters an extensive Valley in the shape of a triangle about 25km/16mi North to South along the coast and extending about 20km/12mi inland. Today 22,000 hectares/54,000 acres of land is cultivated. The Pisco River Valley is located 25km/16mi South and is of similar size.
Human beings have lived along the Peruvian coast for at least 10,000 years. Irrigation agriculture in River Valleys developed later. The first settled communities known in Chincha Valley date from about 800 BC. The Chincha ruin of "Centinel"was one of the 1st archaeological sites in Peru to be investigated by archaeologists. The site covers more than 75 hectares/190 acres and consists of 2 large pyramids, the Centinela (Guardian) and Tambo of Mora, and other smaller ones, constructed of adobe bricks with adobe walls decorated with a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing. Also a black/red on white geometric painting can be seen within the principal Incas building.
The places served as habitations to the leaders of the Chincha people. The surrounded area housed artisans of silver, textiles, wood, and ceramics, and the main purpose of Centinela (Guardian)was ceremonial. Centinela (Guardian) also was the Inca capital of the kingdom of Chincha, and one of the very few places where the Incas incorporated a major state installation into a pre-existing, and still functioning non-Inca capital. The Chincha people maintained trade routes by land with their domesticated camelids reaching the Collao (High Plain) and Cuzco. They also learned seafaring skills from the Pre-Chincha people, allowing them to have extensive maritime trade and travelled as far as central America by raft. The ruler controlled 100,000 sea-going rafts illustrating the importance of Chincha and their trade. Voyages up and down the Pacific coast from Southern Colombia to Northern Chile, possibly as far as Mexico, were a long-standing practice gaining influence and control of the trade and whose location near the Inca homeland in the highlands made Chincha a convenient spot. In 1958, a system of straight roads emanating from the Centinel were discovered, suggesting a highly centralized pre-Inca administration. The place is surrounded by irrigated agricultural land, proving that the residents of Centinel exploited plant, animal and marine resources.
The Chincha people gave their name to the Chinchaysuyo Region, the NorthWestern provincial area of the Tahuantinsuyo (the land of the 4 quarters), the most populous quarter and the largest division of the empire. It encompassed the former lands of the Chimu empire and much of the Northern Andes. Chinchay in Quechua means "jaguar" and also meansd the cardinal point North. Before the Inca Civil War began, Atahualpa, son of the deceased Inca Emperor Huayna Capac, inherited and ruled the majority of Chinchaysuyo from his capital city in Quito. The 12th Inca, Huayna Capac, knowing that he was about to die, gave orders to place his heart and organs in an "Urn" and have it buried in Quito, the city he loved. Moreover, Huayna Capac gave instructions that his mummified body should be transported to Cuzco for burial beside the mummified bodies of his royal ancestors. The eldest son of Huayna Capac, the Emperor Huascar, ruled the Inca Empire from Cuzco and was displeased that Atahualpa crowned himself as Emperor in Quito.
With the arrival of the Europeans, the population of Chincha declined precipitously, mostly due to European diseases and political turmoil because of the greed for gold and silver. Demographers have estimated a 99 percvent decline in population in the first 85 years of European rule. Chincha never regained its earlier prominence.
For people in the highlands, the Andean rabbit symbolize the transformative cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
Wednesday, May 10, 2017
THE SACRED ENERGIES OF THE ANDEAN VOLCANOES.
For most of the 20th century, the central mystery of volcanoes has not so much concerned the behavior of the mountains themselves -their chemistry and plumbing has long been the subject of study- but rather their roots deep within the earth.
A planetary cataclysm occurred approximately 12,256 years ago, which destabilized Earth's energetic grid and at the same time the multidimensional matrix. The ancient Andean people were familiar with the series of energy nodes that accessed higher dimensional planetary planes in the galactic consciousness. Their pursuing in the understanding about the use of such powerful language were of an exploratory, expansive, and mostly, elevating nature and intention. However, as other energetic influences began to dominate the planet they left their places when destruction and chaos were their dominating force arriving to this Andean region. Their intention was completely the opposite to the one who guided the highland people and whatever they did not understand they destroyed it. It should be noted that a powerful place does not guarantee sanctity, energies can be accessed and channelled for many purposes. And, in the case of the Andes, the multiple planes of energy invested in it still co-exist in the complexity of space-time, from an extensive energetic history that reflect a variety in the type of soul, project and intention that people have to fulfill their purpose in the living world.
The first glimmering of objective understanding about what happened in that cataclysm emerged in the 1960s from the theory of plate tectonics. According to this theory, the earth's outer layer, the lithosphere, is an ever-changing mosaic of huge, rigid plates, which float on an astheno-sphere of hot, plastic rock. Thermal convection currents in this level drive the plates a few inches a year creating a quilt of collisions, side-by-side slippage and separation.
Volcanoes are concentrated on two boundaries: sub-duction zones and rifts. In areas of sub-duction, one plate grinds beneath the other, melting parts of both and sending magma spurting to the surface.
At rifts, where convection pulls plates apart, the up-welling magma extends their edges. These two forces always balance: as sub-duction destroys a plate at one edge, rift volcanism rebuilds the opposite side. This symmetrical model accounts for most volcanoes.
The question of "where magma comes from and how it is generated" still are the most speculative even today. Plate tectonics provides only some of the answers.
Volcanic phenomena, subterranean noises, eruptions, etc., coincide with atmospheric phenomena and the terrestrial magnetic field, and the phenomena of man made electromagnetic field is the cause of alteration of the natural interaction between them.
Andean volcanic actions assume a distinctive and periodic character. The zones of disturbance usually extend deeper and around the centers of subterranean action. What is known as a volcanic center is in general a group of centers of action.
In Ecuador, for example, the Valley where the city of Quito sits and the majority of the region's 2.5 million people live, is encircled by two chains of volcanoes, the one Eastern, the other Western. The city and its suburbs are a complex urban sprawl, layered into multiples Valleys and sliced up by ridges. Cotopaxi (5,897m) poses a bigger risk. The volcano woke up in June 2016 from a 75-year slumber. Hundreds of minor earthquakes were localized in the area and Cotopaxi began belching sulfur dioxide and ash. The emissions were modest and not dangerous but it hinted at the possibility of a larger eruption. The picturesque mountain now is the world's most dangerous active volcano because it is so close to a major metropolitan area.
-Purace (Fire Mountain) at an elevation of 4,650m/15,000ft, is another active volcanoes located in the Parent Mountain Central Range in the Cauca Department in Colombia. Large explosive eruptions occurred in 1849, 1869, and 1885. There have been about dozen eruptions in the 20th century, the most recent one being in 1977. On this occasion, volcanic ash was deposited 7km/4.3mi away. An opening in the crust emitted gases that were seen near the summit in 1990, and hot springs emerged from some of the lower slopes.
Satara, Pasto, Rucu, Pichincha, Quirotoa, Autisana, Sangay, Misti, Atacama, Illascar, Llulaillaco, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, and Tupungato.
-Sangay (5,300m), active volcano located isolated East of the Andean crest above the Amazonian rain forest in central Ecuador. It is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and one of Ecuador's most active one, despite erupting only three times in recorded history and the fact that the eruption that started in 1934 is still ongoing. There are three active points, the most important of them is the center itself, the two others being situated one to the North, the other to the West.
-Pichincha (4,784m) an active volcano with two high peaks (Wawa=child, Ruku= old)whose Ecuador's capital Quito wraps around its Eastern slopes. On May 24, 1822, General Sucre Southern campaign in the context of the Spanish-America war of independence, came to a climax when patriot forces defeated the Spanish colonial army on the South-East slopes of this volcano at 3,500 above sea-level where there was little room to manoeuvre. The engagement, known as the Battle of Pichincha, secured the independence of present-day Ecuador.
Pasto, Rucu, Quirotoa, Autisana, Misti, Atacama, Illascar, Llulaillaco, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, and Tupungato, are also active volcanoes along the Andes.
The existence of active internal fires in Andean regions far removed from volcanoes and the volcanoes themselves demonstrate the metaphysical reality of the human conscience, the earth, and the cosmos.
The beautiful ice that crowns the volcanoes shows the purity of nature without the touch of man but the pollution that destroy the balance in the forces of nature comes directly from man's hand.
A planetary cataclysm occurred approximately 12,256 years ago, which destabilized Earth's energetic grid and at the same time the multidimensional matrix. The ancient Andean people were familiar with the series of energy nodes that accessed higher dimensional planetary planes in the galactic consciousness. Their pursuing in the understanding about the use of such powerful language were of an exploratory, expansive, and mostly, elevating nature and intention. However, as other energetic influences began to dominate the planet they left their places when destruction and chaos were their dominating force arriving to this Andean region. Their intention was completely the opposite to the one who guided the highland people and whatever they did not understand they destroyed it. It should be noted that a powerful place does not guarantee sanctity, energies can be accessed and channelled for many purposes. And, in the case of the Andes, the multiple planes of energy invested in it still co-exist in the complexity of space-time, from an extensive energetic history that reflect a variety in the type of soul, project and intention that people have to fulfill their purpose in the living world.
The first glimmering of objective understanding about what happened in that cataclysm emerged in the 1960s from the theory of plate tectonics. According to this theory, the earth's outer layer, the lithosphere, is an ever-changing mosaic of huge, rigid plates, which float on an astheno-sphere of hot, plastic rock. Thermal convection currents in this level drive the plates a few inches a year creating a quilt of collisions, side-by-side slippage and separation.
Volcanoes are concentrated on two boundaries: sub-duction zones and rifts. In areas of sub-duction, one plate grinds beneath the other, melting parts of both and sending magma spurting to the surface.
At rifts, where convection pulls plates apart, the up-welling magma extends their edges. These two forces always balance: as sub-duction destroys a plate at one edge, rift volcanism rebuilds the opposite side. This symmetrical model accounts for most volcanoes.
The question of "where magma comes from and how it is generated" still are the most speculative even today. Plate tectonics provides only some of the answers.
Volcanic phenomena, subterranean noises, eruptions, etc., coincide with atmospheric phenomena and the terrestrial magnetic field, and the phenomena of man made electromagnetic field is the cause of alteration of the natural interaction between them.
Andean volcanic actions assume a distinctive and periodic character. The zones of disturbance usually extend deeper and around the centers of subterranean action. What is known as a volcanic center is in general a group of centers of action.
In Ecuador, for example, the Valley where the city of Quito sits and the majority of the region's 2.5 million people live, is encircled by two chains of volcanoes, the one Eastern, the other Western. The city and its suburbs are a complex urban sprawl, layered into multiples Valleys and sliced up by ridges. Cotopaxi (5,897m) poses a bigger risk. The volcano woke up in June 2016 from a 75-year slumber. Hundreds of minor earthquakes were localized in the area and Cotopaxi began belching sulfur dioxide and ash. The emissions were modest and not dangerous but it hinted at the possibility of a larger eruption. The picturesque mountain now is the world's most dangerous active volcano because it is so close to a major metropolitan area.
-Purace (Fire Mountain) at an elevation of 4,650m/15,000ft, is another active volcanoes located in the Parent Mountain Central Range in the Cauca Department in Colombia. Large explosive eruptions occurred in 1849, 1869, and 1885. There have been about dozen eruptions in the 20th century, the most recent one being in 1977. On this occasion, volcanic ash was deposited 7km/4.3mi away. An opening in the crust emitted gases that were seen near the summit in 1990, and hot springs emerged from some of the lower slopes.
Satara, Pasto, Rucu, Pichincha, Quirotoa, Autisana, Sangay, Misti, Atacama, Illascar, Llulaillaco, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, and Tupungato.
-Sangay (5,300m), active volcano located isolated East of the Andean crest above the Amazonian rain forest in central Ecuador. It is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and one of Ecuador's most active one, despite erupting only three times in recorded history and the fact that the eruption that started in 1934 is still ongoing. There are three active points, the most important of them is the center itself, the two others being situated one to the North, the other to the West.
-Pichincha (4,784m) an active volcano with two high peaks (Wawa=child, Ruku= old)whose Ecuador's capital Quito wraps around its Eastern slopes. On May 24, 1822, General Sucre Southern campaign in the context of the Spanish-America war of independence, came to a climax when patriot forces defeated the Spanish colonial army on the South-East slopes of this volcano at 3,500 above sea-level where there was little room to manoeuvre. The engagement, known as the Battle of Pichincha, secured the independence of present-day Ecuador.
Pasto, Rucu, Quirotoa, Autisana, Misti, Atacama, Illascar, Llulaillaco, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, and Tupungato, are also active volcanoes along the Andes.
The existence of active internal fires in Andean regions far removed from volcanoes and the volcanoes themselves demonstrate the metaphysical reality of the human conscience, the earth, and the cosmos.
The beautiful ice that crowns the volcanoes shows the purity of nature without the touch of man but the pollution that destroy the balance in the forces of nature comes directly from man's hand.
Tuesday, May 2, 2017
THE ANDEAN BEES.
Bees (Apoidea) are found in all regions of the Earth outside of the extreme arctics, and their greatest abundance and diversity is in warm-temperate areas. Recently, it has been pointed out that among the least known bee faunas in the World is that of the higher tropical Andes, from Bolivia to Venezuela.
The first inhabitants of South America, in their long voyages 10,000 years ago, carried with them seeds of plants that are now considered the ancestors of many that today grow everywhere. Bees at that time pollenized the plant flowers allowing the birth of the hybrid plants that the Andean ancestral class ate and that eventually led to the modern version of those plants.
The Andes are divided into 3 mountain ranges: Occidental with elevations of up to 3,900m, Central with the highest peaks at 5,432m, and the Oriental and the longest and widest range with elevations reaching 5,400m. Each region have several varieties of the same species of domesticated plant. In the case of the coca plant that was consumed by the Inca, during the time of the Inca empire, its handling was restricted to the ruling class only. It was brought from the warm valleys of intermediate altitude East of the Andes and was used as a mind stimulant in a very rigid process in order to obtain protection against the dark forces acting in the unseen world. The Universe was understood as world made of infinite particles of energy holding everything together and at the same time keeping it apart.
In the Lake Titicaca of Peru there are many ancient sites called "Chullpa Towers." They were made by the Incas probably as meeting places, defensive structures, funerary rituals, or as a place of connection with the unseen world, and the presence of bones does not necessarily means that the Chullpa were made for interring the dead. The interior contains a bee hive like construction. The stone is extremely tight fitting and the outer wall is megalithic. Earth energies in the form of currents have been found that they still act in them. The currents are primarily geomagnetic which are induced by changes in the outer part of the Earth's magnetic field, which are usually caused by interactions between our solar system and the rest of the vast universe.
Most Andean bee species occur in the cloud forest between 2,400m / 3,300m, and only a few species, such as the sting-less bees (Apidae) can thrive in the higher altitudes of the paramo and puna, a high mountain grassland occurring between 3,500 / 4,100m. As a result, pollination at these higher elevations is mainly carried out by true flies or butterflies.
Many Andean bee species have cope with large, daily changes in weather conditions, which have a serious effect on their flight and foraging activity. This process of adaptation varies strikingly over its range showing the condition under which it lives. The variation involve not only color and details of structure, but also social behavioral attributes. An example of structural difference of some importance is tongue length which varies according to its geographical scenario. Tongue length influences types of flowers which bees use, some tubular corollas being to deep for bees with short tongues. In fact, many Andean plants have prolonged flower longevity -a strategy evolved with the purpose of increase their chances of pollination.
The Peruvian black bumblebee (Bombus atratus) can often be found around disturbed cloud forest habitats at above 2,000m. Its nests are active year-round, and can contain up to 8 active queens and more than 80 workers. Bumblebees have round bodies covered in soft hair making them appear and feel fuzzy. Like their relatives the honeybees, bumblebees feed on nectar, using their long hairy tongues to lap up the liquid which is folded under the head during flight.
The Andean flower bee (Anthophora walteri) nests in flat ground or small banks in semi-arid montane habitats.
Several species of sand or digger wasps (genus Ammophila) inhabit the paramo and puna. These wasps paralyse caterpillars and inter them in excavated tunnels as sources of fresh food for their larvae.
The first inhabitants of South America, in their long voyages 10,000 years ago, carried with them seeds of plants that are now considered the ancestors of many that today grow everywhere. Bees at that time pollenized the plant flowers allowing the birth of the hybrid plants that the Andean ancestral class ate and that eventually led to the modern version of those plants.
The Andes are divided into 3 mountain ranges: Occidental with elevations of up to 3,900m, Central with the highest peaks at 5,432m, and the Oriental and the longest and widest range with elevations reaching 5,400m. Each region have several varieties of the same species of domesticated plant. In the case of the coca plant that was consumed by the Inca, during the time of the Inca empire, its handling was restricted to the ruling class only. It was brought from the warm valleys of intermediate altitude East of the Andes and was used as a mind stimulant in a very rigid process in order to obtain protection against the dark forces acting in the unseen world. The Universe was understood as world made of infinite particles of energy holding everything together and at the same time keeping it apart.
In the Lake Titicaca of Peru there are many ancient sites called "Chullpa Towers." They were made by the Incas probably as meeting places, defensive structures, funerary rituals, or as a place of connection with the unseen world, and the presence of bones does not necessarily means that the Chullpa were made for interring the dead. The interior contains a bee hive like construction. The stone is extremely tight fitting and the outer wall is megalithic. Earth energies in the form of currents have been found that they still act in them. The currents are primarily geomagnetic which are induced by changes in the outer part of the Earth's magnetic field, which are usually caused by interactions between our solar system and the rest of the vast universe.
Most Andean bee species occur in the cloud forest between 2,400m / 3,300m, and only a few species, such as the sting-less bees (Apidae) can thrive in the higher altitudes of the paramo and puna, a high mountain grassland occurring between 3,500 / 4,100m. As a result, pollination at these higher elevations is mainly carried out by true flies or butterflies.
Many Andean bee species have cope with large, daily changes in weather conditions, which have a serious effect on their flight and foraging activity. This process of adaptation varies strikingly over its range showing the condition under which it lives. The variation involve not only color and details of structure, but also social behavioral attributes. An example of structural difference of some importance is tongue length which varies according to its geographical scenario. Tongue length influences types of flowers which bees use, some tubular corollas being to deep for bees with short tongues. In fact, many Andean plants have prolonged flower longevity -a strategy evolved with the purpose of increase their chances of pollination.
The Peruvian black bumblebee (Bombus atratus) can often be found around disturbed cloud forest habitats at above 2,000m. Its nests are active year-round, and can contain up to 8 active queens and more than 80 workers. Bumblebees have round bodies covered in soft hair making them appear and feel fuzzy. Like their relatives the honeybees, bumblebees feed on nectar, using their long hairy tongues to lap up the liquid which is folded under the head during flight.
The Andean flower bee (Anthophora walteri) nests in flat ground or small banks in semi-arid montane habitats.
Several species of sand or digger wasps (genus Ammophila) inhabit the paramo and puna. These wasps paralyse caterpillars and inter them in excavated tunnels as sources of fresh food for their larvae.
Monday, May 1, 2017
THE MEANING OF LIFE AND DEATH ACCORDING TO THE ANDEAN PEOPLE.
Ancient Andean people viewed life and death in two ways. One was biological death, when the body ceased functionally. The other was social death, and certain chosen individuals remained active in the minds, souls, and daily lives of the living until they were forgotten or replaced by other chosen figures.
In the Andean belief of today, life does not end with death, but continues in another plane or realm. There are no clear dividing lines between them because human existence is understood as a dynamic process that involves a living power that increase or decrease in its force.
Ancestral veneration frightened greatly the Spanish crown and clergy since they were already in submission to the power of the dark world that controlled their lands and ignorantly destroyed the sources of power that did not belong to the same source. Burial chambers, shrines and important places of ancestral worshiping were destroyed by them to undermine the foundation of the Andean beliefs.
The ancient Inca Empire developed from the strong foundation of their ancestral beliefs and spanned more than 2,000 miles North to South, from Ecuador to Chile at the time of the European arrival in 1515CE.
The Incas identified themselves as the Children of the Sun, who were invested with the capacity to govern the living forces acting in the world of the living in an orderly way to maintain the balance in between worlds. Inca rulers were extremely powerful and revered by the Andean people and it did not end with their death. They were mummified and presented during special public rituals so their legends would be retained as a living presence. Their mummies were served by royal descendants of the dead lord endowed with great wealth (panacas). The servant's role was to conserve the dead ruler's mummy and to immortalize his life and achievements with the help of special rituals and chants performed on ceremonial occasions in the presence of the succeeding lord and the mummies of other Inca lords. These rites were passed on from generation to generation. The Capac Raymi was one of the most crucial ceremonies. It occurred around the time of the summer solstice. It served as an initiation ceremony for the young men of the ruling class. When the solstice arrived the boy's ears were pierced in order to insert the large circular earrings worn by Inca royalty. The Inti Raymi took place during the winter solstice and was also a ceremony that honored the energy of the sun god. This was because during winter the sun was furthest away from the earth and due to the fear of famine, fasting was the primary activity of the Inca that lasted for days.
For the Andean people of today, they belief there are different levels of life and death. When things are not going well, it means that the level of life is very low. Every misfortune is seen as an agent of diminution of the vital force inherent in the human body, since a greater negative force is acting in it.
Death does not interfere nor alter or end the life of the ego or personality of an individual, causing only a change in its conditions. This is still expressed in the concept of ancestry. People who have died are believed they continue their existence in a similar way that the stars and constellations do, their life force still is perceived, even though they are dead, until it is no more.
Death, then, is perceived as the beginning of a person's deeper relationship with the complementing and vast cosmological energy, and the communication between the visible and the invisible worlds. The goal of life is to become a part of the ancestry force after death. This is why every person who dies must be given a respectful funeral to guarantee a secure and safe passage for the dying, supported by a number of religious ceremonies. If this is not done, the soul of the dead person become a wandering ghost, and, unable to continue its existence properly after death, it becomes a danger to the ones who remain alive, particularly because it is believed that the dead have power over the living.
In the Andean belief of today, life does not end with death, but continues in another plane or realm. There are no clear dividing lines between them because human existence is understood as a dynamic process that involves a living power that increase or decrease in its force.
Ancestral veneration frightened greatly the Spanish crown and clergy since they were already in submission to the power of the dark world that controlled their lands and ignorantly destroyed the sources of power that did not belong to the same source. Burial chambers, shrines and important places of ancestral worshiping were destroyed by them to undermine the foundation of the Andean beliefs.
The ancient Inca Empire developed from the strong foundation of their ancestral beliefs and spanned more than 2,000 miles North to South, from Ecuador to Chile at the time of the European arrival in 1515CE.
The Incas identified themselves as the Children of the Sun, who were invested with the capacity to govern the living forces acting in the world of the living in an orderly way to maintain the balance in between worlds. Inca rulers were extremely powerful and revered by the Andean people and it did not end with their death. They were mummified and presented during special public rituals so their legends would be retained as a living presence. Their mummies were served by royal descendants of the dead lord endowed with great wealth (panacas). The servant's role was to conserve the dead ruler's mummy and to immortalize his life and achievements with the help of special rituals and chants performed on ceremonial occasions in the presence of the succeeding lord and the mummies of other Inca lords. These rites were passed on from generation to generation. The Capac Raymi was one of the most crucial ceremonies. It occurred around the time of the summer solstice. It served as an initiation ceremony for the young men of the ruling class. When the solstice arrived the boy's ears were pierced in order to insert the large circular earrings worn by Inca royalty. The Inti Raymi took place during the winter solstice and was also a ceremony that honored the energy of the sun god. This was because during winter the sun was furthest away from the earth and due to the fear of famine, fasting was the primary activity of the Inca that lasted for days.
For the Andean people of today, they belief there are different levels of life and death. When things are not going well, it means that the level of life is very low. Every misfortune is seen as an agent of diminution of the vital force inherent in the human body, since a greater negative force is acting in it.
Death does not interfere nor alter or end the life of the ego or personality of an individual, causing only a change in its conditions. This is still expressed in the concept of ancestry. People who have died are believed they continue their existence in a similar way that the stars and constellations do, their life force still is perceived, even though they are dead, until it is no more.
Death, then, is perceived as the beginning of a person's deeper relationship with the complementing and vast cosmological energy, and the communication between the visible and the invisible worlds. The goal of life is to become a part of the ancestry force after death. This is why every person who dies must be given a respectful funeral to guarantee a secure and safe passage for the dying, supported by a number of religious ceremonies. If this is not done, the soul of the dead person become a wandering ghost, and, unable to continue its existence properly after death, it becomes a danger to the ones who remain alive, particularly because it is believed that the dead have power over the living.
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